Developmental Antecedents of Behavior

Research on behavior and personality structure in children has been far less extensive than that on  adolescents and adults, but the work that exists suggests the Big Five and HEXACO models provide  excellent coverage of behavior and personality in children as young as preschool age (e.g., Caspi  & Shiner, 2006; Kohnstamm, Halverson, Mervielde, & Havill, 1998; Goldberg, 2001; Tackett et al.,  2012). A brief summary of that evidence follows.

Honesty-Humility

Research shows that the precursors to this domain, sometimes referred to as early conscience,  begin to emerge as early as toddlerhood and become more stable markers of future adaptive  behavior (e.g., following rules, telling the truth, taking responsibility for actions) by age five  (Kochanska, Koenig, Barry, Kim, & Yoon, 2010).

Emotion Regulation

Children vary in their experience of a variety of negative emotions (e.g., distress, anxiety, and sadness); thus, the Emotionality domain is often referred to as Negative Emotionality in the child literature.  Starting at preschool age and continuing into adolescence, these individual differences become more complex as children’s cognitive capacities and awareness of themselves and their environment continue to develop (Shiner & DeYoung, 2013). Negative emotionality has been linked to children’s capacity to deal effectively with negative emotions, adjust to stressful circumstances, and develop a sense of self-confidence and mastery over their environment (Caspi & Shiner, 2006; Durbin, Hayden, Klein, & Olino, 2007).

Extraversion

From infancy, children also display individual differences in Extraversion, referred to as positive emotionality in the developmental literature (Gartstein & Rothbart, 2003). By preschool age, children display a variety of the behaviors that are markers of this domain, including socializing with peers, exhibiting positive emotions such as joy and enthusiasm, and expressing a willingness to engage their external environment (De Pauw, Mervielde, & Van Leeuwen, 2009).

Agreeableness

Given the importance of maintaining positive relationships with others, the domain of Agreeableness, referred to as affiliativeness in the child literature, has received considerable attention. Some of the early behavioral markers of this domain include displays of irritability, physical aggression, and early manifestations of empathy (e.g., Knafo, Zahn-Waxler, Van Hulle, Robinson, & Rhee, 2008; Tremblay & Nagin, 2005). By preschool age, these markers also include relational aggression, prosocial behavior including cooperation and helpfulness, and more elaborate manifestations of empathy (Shiner & DeYoung, 2013).

Conscientiousness

Children also vary in their display of this domain, referred to as effortful control (Shiner & DeYoung, 2013). By toddlerhood, children are able to sustain attention and persist in basic tasks. And by preschool age, children display a variety of behavioral skills that facilitate planning, inhibit impulses, and regulate attention (e.g., Rothbart, Chew, & Gartstein, 2001). These markers continue to diversify and deepen into improved impulse control, goal striving, orderliness, and dependability, particularly as children face increased demands from academic environments.

Openness to Experience

This domain, referred to as orienting sensitivity in the child literature, is less understood in terms of its developmental antecedents. However, there is evidence suggesting that it can be measured in children as early as preschool age (DePauw et al., 2009), and that behavioral markers include  expressing curiosity, exploring new situations, exhibiting sensitivity to internal and external stimuli, engaging in imaginative play, and adapting in the face of uncertainty (Caspi & Shiner, 2006; Evans &  Rothbart, 2007).