The Value of Behavioral Skills at Work and School

A large body of research has shown that the behavior domains and components included in this framework predict success in a variety of important education and work outcomes. In some instances, behavioral skills have been shown to predict outcomes as effectively as cognitive skills. In fact, cognitive skills are themselves influenced by behavioral skills (Almlund, Duckworth, Heckman, & Kautz, 2011; Heckman & Kautz, 2014). Research summarized in the following paragraphs establishes the importance of broad domains and more specific behaviors in predicting specific outcomes in three populations of interest: workers, postsecondary students, and K–12 students.

Behavior Predicts Important Outcomes for Workers

Industrial/organizational psychology provides substantial evidence concerning the role of behavior for predicting important workplace outcomes. Specifically, this literature documents the utility of  behaviors for predicting a broad range of job performance criteria, including task performance,  engaging in appropriate and ethical work conduct, use of interpersonal skills (e.g., leadership,  teamwork), and other important outcomes like work satisfaction and perceived work stress (e.g.,  Barrick & Mount, 1991; Barrick, Mount, & Judge, 2001; Judge, Higgins, Thoresen, & Barrick, 1999; Lindqvist & Vestman, 2011; Ones, Viswesvaran, & Schmidt, 1993; Roberts, Kuncel, Shiner, Caspi, & Goldberg, 2007; Salgado, 2003; Schmidt & Hunter, 1998; Van Iddekinge, Roth, Raymark, & Odle-Dusseau, 2012).

When it comes to an individual’s level of task performance at work, research has shown that behavior predicts whether an individual completes tasks on time, the amount of work completed, and the  quality and accuracy of that work (e.g., Anderson, Roush, & McClary, 1973; Thoresen, Bradley, Bliese,  & Thoresen, 2004; Viswesvaran et al., 1996), as well as more personal outcomes that can affect performance,such as satisfaction, stress, and burnout (e.g., Bogg & Roberts, 2004; Judge, Heller, &  Mount, 2002; Swider & Zimmerman, 2010). Further, behaviors have been associated with a range  of activities that contribute to positive social and psychological aspects of an organization (aka  contextual performance; Borman & Motowidlo, 1993) and generally involve more interpersonally  relevant tasks, such as working in teams, providing courteous service, managing conflict, and  displaying leadership (e.g., Hogan & Holland, 2003; Judge, Bono, Ilies, & Gerhardt, 2002; Morgeson,  Reider, & Campion, 2005; Organ & Ryan, 1995; Sharma, Bottom, & Elfenbein, 2013). Similarly, these predictors have been associated with inappropriate interpersonal conduct (often referred as workplace incivility; Cortina, Magley, Williams, & Langout, 2001), including discrimination, bullying, sexual harassment, and other forms of aggression in the workplace (e.g., Bolton, Becker, & Barber, 2010; Roberts, Harms, Caspi, & Moffitt, 2007; Spector et al., 2006).

As already noted (and in Mattern et al., 2014), most of the workforce research is based on a predictive validity paradigm. However, some authors (e.g., Sackett & Walmsley, 2014) caution that (1) predictive validities may not reflect what employers actually value and (2) the research literature contains convenience samples of occupations, which may not fully represent the full range of occupations in the workplace. As such, Sackett and Walmsley determined which behavior domains  are most valued by looking both at the types of interview questions job candidates are asked during structured interviews and at job analysis data collected by the Department of Labor’s O*NET. The results of these analyses were consistent with those of meta-analyses using predictive validities from the literature. That is, when behavior components were ranked in terms of importance for a  wide variety of job families, components from all six domains in the ACT behavior framework were  represented in the top three spots among all the job families (Sackett & Walmsley, 2014), with  Conscientiousness being considered the most important. These results also are generally consistent with national surveys of employers, which have found that employers value behaviors in general and particularly value work ethic (a component of Conscientiousness; see Casner-Lotto & Barrington, 2006).

As can be seen, behavior predicts a broad range of important outcomes in the workplace. Research shows that behavior also predicts important outcomes in educational settings; however, educational research has traditionally focused on two broad educational outcomes—academic performance (e.g., GPA) and persistence (e.g., degree attainment)—rather than the broader range of outcomes found in workplace research (e.g., Lounsbury, Gibson, Sundstrom, Wilburn, & Loveland, 2004; Poropat, 2009; Robbins et al., 2004).

Behavior Predicts Important Outcomes for Postsecondary Students

When it comes to an individual’s level of academic performance in postsecondary settings (college and graduate-level programs), research has shown that behavior predicts academic grades above and beyond the effects of cognitive tests (ACT or SAT scores) and high school GPA (e.g., McAbee et al., in press; O’Connor & Paunonen, 2007; Poropat, 2009; Richardson et al., 2012; Trapmann, Hell, Weigand, & Schuler, 2007). Research also shows that these predictors are related to engagement  in the academic and interpersonal environment of college, such as participating in class discussions,  participating in extracurricular activities, and establishing relationships with peers (e.g., Asendorpf  & Wilpers, 1998; McClenney, Marti, & Adkins, 2006), all of which educational theory and research  support as being important contributors to higher quality academic experiences and improved  performance in college (e.g., Astin, 1999; Conley, 2007; Kuh, Kinzie, Buckley, Bridges, & Hayek,  2006; Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005).

In addition, behavior predicts persistence in postsecondary settings, and these results hold up across a variety of time periods and different definitions of persistence. These outcomes range from those  focused on a single semester, such as class attendance in specific courses and dropped courses  (e.g., Conard, 2006; Credé, Roch, & Kieszezynka, 2010; Willging & Johnson, 2009), to measures  spanning multiple years, such as number of terms enrolled, credit hours completed, and time to  degree attainment (e.g., McClenney et al., 2006; Robbins et al., 2004). Moreover, there is a growing  literature that shows behavior (measured by checklists, experience sampling, or other ratings)  predicts a range of other outcomes in postsecondary settings, including academic dishonesty, time  management and procrastination, ability to cope with problems and stressors, satisfaction with the  college environment, and health and well-being (Cochran, Wood, Sellers, Wilkerson, & Chamblin, 1998; Lounsbury, Saudargas, Gibson, & Leong, 2005; Marshall, Wortman, Vickers, Kusulus, & Hervig, 1994; Saenz & Barrera, 2007; Steel, 2007; Watson & Hubbard, 1996).

Behavior Predicts Important Outcomes for K–12 Students

When it comes to an individual’s academic performance in elementary and secondary school, research has shown that behavior provides incremental validity for predicting academic grades above  and beyond more traditional predictors like achievement test scores, demographics, and school  characteristics (e.g., Almlund et al., 2011; Casillas et al., 2012; Duckworth, Quinn, & Tsukayama, 2012;  Gaertner & McClarty, 2014; Kaufman & Bradbury, 1992; Lounsbury, Sundstrom, Loveland, & Gibson,  2003; Oswald et al., 2004; Poropat, 2009; Willingham, Pollack, & Lewis, 2002; Zins, Bloodworth,  Weissberg, & Walberg, 2004). Further, behavior tends to predict procrastination, prosocial interactions, aggression, and conduct problems, all of which, in turn, facilitate (or impede) academic performance (e.g., Ehrler, Evans, & McGhee, 1999; Jensen-Campbell, Gleason, Adams, & Malcolm, 2003; Loveland, Lounsbury, Welsh, & Buboltz, 2007; Malecki & Elliott, 2002; see Farrington et al., 2012 for a review). In addition, research shows that behavior predicts persistence in secondary school across short  intervals, such as absences during a school year, as well as longer ones, such as on-time high school  graduation (e.g., Balfanz, Herzog, & Mac Iver, 2007; Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews, & Kelly, 2007;  Moore et al., in press; Rumberger & Lim, 2008; Vallerand, Fortier, & Guay, 1997; Zins et al., 2004).

Specific Domains of the ACT Behavioral Skills Framework Predict Success

 Behaviors predict a broad range of important outcomes across education and work settings (for reviews, see Mattern et al., 2014; McAbee et al., in press; Poropat, 2009; Viswesvaran, Ones, &  Schmidt, 1996). In fact, research shows that the components in the ACT behavioral skills framework are more effective at predicting more specific outcomes than are broader measures of behavior. This section presents research evidence on the validity of some of these specific components (and their underlying behaviors) for specific outcomes at school and at work.

Acting Honestly. Although this domain is a relatively new addition to the literature, behaviors such  as being honest, ethical, and fair have been of interest to educators and organizations for a long  time, and research shows that components from this domain relate to measures of integrity in education and workplace settings (Lee, Ashton, & de Vries, 2005; Lee et al., 2009). In education  settings, high scores on components containing behaviors such as acting sincerely, treating others  fairly, and being modest are associated with higher GPAs and lower levels of counterproductive  behavior in college students (de Vries, deVries, & Born, 2011), as well as higher levels of other  positive outcomes, such as continuous learning, ethics, and leadership (McAbee et al., in press).  High scores on integrity tests, many of which tap Acting Honestly content, have also been found to predict better job performance even after taking into account employees’ scores on cognitive ability tests (Schmidt & Hunter, 1998), a finding corroborated by more recent research examining behaviors related to being modest, fair, and sincere with others (Johnson, Rowatt, & Petrini, 2011; Judge, Rodell, Klinger, Simon, & Crawford, 2013). Such scores also turn out to predict lower levels of counterproductive work behavior (Ones, Viswesvaran, & Schmidt, 1993; Van Iddekinge et al., 2012),  a finding replicated when looking at the component of Fairness that includes behaviors like avoiding  cheating or taking advantage of others (O’Neill, Lewis, & Carswell, 2011).

Getting Along with Others. The components in this domain have to do with the manner in which a person interacts with others, such as being respectful and patient, showing concern when appropriate, and trusting and assisting others. In the K–12 area, these components predict fewer  instances of rule breaking—especially those related to inappropriate interpersonal behaviors  (Lounsbury, Steel, Loveland, & Gibson, 2004)—as well as better academic performance (Loveland,  Lounsbury, Welsh, & Buboltz, 2007). Among college students, they predict higher performance (Okun & Finch, 1998) and are associated with higher levels of study and communication skills, social connections with others, and commitment to college (Peterson, Casillas, & Robbins, 2006).  Finally, in the work domain, these components predict a wide range of outcomes, including higher  performance (Mount, Barrick, & Stewart, 1998), more interpersonal helping behavior and lower  counterproductive behavior (Gonzalez-Mule, Mount, & Oh, 2014), higher job satisfaction (Judge &  Bono, 2001), and fewer intentions to quit (Zimmerman, 2008).

Keeping an Open Mind. Traditionally, this domain was not considered to be strongly relevant for performance-related outcomes, but this view is beginning to change. For example, components  in this domain have recently been shown to predict achievement in elementary school (Poropat,  2009), college (Paunonen & Ashton, 2013), and medical school.1 High levels of these components  also predicted greater levels of continuous learning, appreciation for diversity and the arts, and  interpersonal skills (McAbee et al., in press). In addition, intellectual curiosity was found to be a strong predictor of academic performance independent of intelligence (von Stumm, Hell, & Chamorro-Premuzic, 2011). In the work context, there has been increased emphasis on components  in this domain, even calling out specific subtypes of work performance related to the behaviors  underlying these components, such as adaptive performance (Pulakos et al., 2002) and change-related citizenship behaviors (Chiaburu, Oh, Berry, Li, & Gardner, 2011). A recent meta-analysis summarizing over 1,700 studies also found a fairly strong relationship between Keeping an Open Mind behaviors, such as being open to new ideas and curious about new topics, and job performance (Oh, Wang, & Mount, 2011). Finally, these components are unsurprisingly related to creativity and innovation in organizations (Hammond, Neff, Farr, & Schwall, 2011).

Maintaining Composure. Research on components in this domain has shown that being effective at tolerating stress, regulating emotion, and having confidence improves one’s chances of success, both at school and at work. In academic contexts, components in this domain containing behaviors  such as effectively managing stress and anxiety and making decisions without being overly reliant on others predict academic achievement and performance in K–12 students (Lounsbury, Gibson,  Sundstrom, Wilburn, & Loveland, 2004; Poropat, 2009) and college students (Robbins, Lauver, Le,  Davis, & Langley, 2004). These components also predict a wide range of work outcomes, including higher performance, more interpersonal helping behavior, lower counterproductive behavior, higher job satisfaction, and fewer intentions to quit (Gonzalez-Mule et al., 2014; Judge & Bono, 2001; Mount, Barrick, & Stewart, 1998; Zimmerman, 2008).

Socializing with Others. Research has found that this domain consistently predicts positive outcomes. In K–12 settings, components comprising this domain, including seeking out others’  company and staying optimistic even when things go wrong, predict higher levels of academic  performance and fewer instances of inappropriate interpersonal behavior such as yelling or pushing  (Lounsbury et al., 2003). They have also been found to predict higher GPAs in college (Paunonen & Ashton, 2013). In particular, measures of Optimism predict better academic performance in K–12 students (Lounsbury et al., 2004; Poropat, 2009), as well as higher levels of performance and engagement in employees (Judge et al., 2013). In college settings, Optimism behaviors (e.g., being cheerful) have been shown to predict more continuous learning, adaptability and life skills, and perseverance (McAbee et al., in press). In workplace settings, components associated with the Socializing with Others domain predict higher job satisfaction (Judge & Bono, 2001), less emotional exhaustion (Alacron, Eschleman, & Bowling, 2009), and fewer intentions to quit (Zimmerman, 2008).

Sustaining Effort. In all the research on behavior, personality, and their correlates, aspects of this domain, including being motivated, organized, dependable, and self-controlled, have consistently been found to strongly relate to performance across all age groups. When examining effects in a number of individual studies on academic achievement, it was the only domain that consistently predicted achievement from elementary school all the way into college (Poropat, 2009). Further, this domain also turns out to be important for people moving into the workforce, as it has repeatedly been shown to be the strongest predictor of job performance after cognitive ability (e.g., Almlund et al., 2011; Schmidt & Hunter, 1998) and is consistently considered to be the most important behavior domain for work whether one is looking at predictors of performance, employer-desired attributes in employees, or skills required on the job (Sackett & Walmsley, 2014). In fact, the behaviors in this  domain (such as exhibiting high effort and staying on task) predict a wide range of work outcomes,  including higher performance and more voluntary “good citizen” behaviors (Judge et al., 2013), lower  counterproductive behavior (Berry, Ones, & Sackett, 2007), higher job satisfaction (Judge & Bono,  2001), and fewer intentions to quit (Zimmerman, 2008). The Persistence component in particular,  which includes overcoming challenges in the face of obstacles, maintaining effort, and focusing on  tasks in the presence of distractions, predicts higher GPAs in college students (deVries et al., 2011)  and in medical school students (Lievens, Ones, & Dilchert, 2009), as well as fewer counterproductive  behaviors in college students (deVries et al., 2011). This component also predicts managerial performance, effort, and interpersonal effectiveness in work settings (Christiansen & Robie, 2011).